The Philosophical Foundations of Civilizational Dialogue
By Dr. Hans Köchler

Preliminary remarks

Upon the end of the East-West conflict – when decades-old enemy stereotypes along ideological lines had suddenly vanished – a new paradigm has been emerging from Western think tanks for the categorization of international relations, namely that of the "clash of civilizations." The term was originally coined by Bernard Lewis in an essay analyzing the increasing alienation between the Western and Muslim world (1990).[1] Samuel Huntington's treatise of 1993[2] has taken up that theme, putting it into a more general context. His theses provoked worldwide controversies, particularly between scholars in the Western and Muslim world, and also among Western philosophers themselves. In the meantime, the text has been perceived by many as key document of a new hegemonial discourse of the West: as expression of a doctrine by which the propagators of a "New World Order"[3] strive to interpret even the tragic events of September 11, 2001, as part of an emerging global confrontation between the self-declared "enlightened" West and the supposed forces of "fanaticism" and "irrationality." In the eyes of many in the West, Huntington's paradigm, in spite of his own refutations,[4] has been reinforced as a result of global political developments since that date. Francis Fukuyama's earlier paradigm (1989) of the "end of history" – predicting the victory of Western "liberal" democracy over other models of society[5] – has been quickly replaced by the more gloomy confrontational paradigm.

As regards the Islamic civilization, which is perceived by many in the West as a threat not just since the end of the East-West conflict,[6] the point has been made most drastically by Bernard Lewis, the first to evoke the theme of an almost inevitable confrontation: "This is no less than a clash of civilizations – the perhaps irrational but surely historic reaction of an ancient rival against our Judeo-Christian heritage, our secular present, and the worldwide expansion of both. It is crucially important that we on our side should not be provoked into an equally historic but also equally irrational reaction against that rival."[7]

Against this background of growing political tension and increasing alienation between East and West along civilizational and particularly religious lines, it is of utmost importance to reflect upon the very nature of human consciousness which, in essence, requires dialogue (the encounter with "the other") in order to fully realize itself. Apart from the epistemological relevance, rethinking the philosophical foundations of consciousness allows us to understand the basic principles of dialogue among civilizations, thus enabling us to create an alternative paradigm by which the human being of the 21^st century[8] will learn to understand himself in a truly universal manner as member of the one human race and according to the structural traits of the human mind that are shared by the philosophia perennis of virtually all civilizations.

As a philosopher with a background of European (Graeco-Roman) philosophy, I undertake to develop the theory of civilizational dialogue by using the concepts available in that particular cultural context. Being aware of the history of Eurocentrism, I will try to avoid the "universalist" mistakes of that tradition.[9] However, the assumptions developed here may equally be proven in the framework of philosophical traditions other than those presented in this essay.

The dialectical nature of human consciousness

Human consciousness is only possible on the basis of a dialectical relationship between subject (ego) and object  – or, to put it in Fichtean terms without adopting, however, Fichte's idealistic ontology, between the ego and the non-ego[10]: that which is "opposed" to, or distinct from, the subject as content of its perception or practical self-realization. The "intentionality" of the human mind – as described by Franz Brentano[11] and later by Edmund Husserl in his phenomenology[12] – is the core concept on which 20^th century European philosophy has built its efforts to explain how the human being exists in the real world (in the sense not only of perceiving the world as something different from his mind, but of positioning himself as concrete existence in the "life-world,"[13] as "being-in-the-world" as it was later explained by Martin Heidegger[14]).

Intentionality of the mind (subject) means its being directed towards an object, or objects, which form the content of its perception. The subject understands itself only through the object. De-finitio, in its original meaning, implies drawing the very borders between a given entity and that which is different from it. When applied to the nature of the human subject, this relationship means that the ego can only fully understand itself if it is able to relate to that which is not the self. Along the lines of G.W.F. Hegel's dialectical philosophy, the self-consciousness which is characteristic of the human being must be understood as synthesis resulting from the juxtaposition of the ego (as thesis) and that which it encounters in the life-world, the non-ego (which may also appear in the form of an alter ego), as antithesis. This dialectical relationship is the essence of critical thinking, i.e. of an awareness of my self in the sense of being able to look at myself from the perspective of the "other."

What applies to individual consciousness, also applies (in general-structural terms) to the collective consciousness as expressed in a particular civilization or culture (if understood as a specific expression or trait of a civilization). What we have earlier called the "cultural self-comprehension of nations"[15] is only possible on the basis of this dialectical relationship between a given civilization and those civilizational or more specifically cultural, traditions that are distinct from it, i.e. that have developed their characteristics independently of that civilization.

This level of critical consciousness, being aware of its limitations, may only be attained to the extent that we are able and willing to compare the system of our own "life-world" to those systems that are different from ours: it is the "other" (the "object" in a more abstract sense, even if it means a collective subject such as a civilization) that constitutes the precondition for me being aware of myself as an individual as well as a member of a community. The same structural rule applies to the shaping of collective consciousness. The human mind reaches mature self-awareness essentially in the process of distinguishing from itself, as the "subject," that which is not the subject. In this fundamentally dialectical process lies the very essence of reflection (as self-reflection).

As explained above, consciousness is attained following the dialectical interdependence between subject and object: the more I am able to perceive myself as being distinct from other  subjects ("alter egos"), the more I will succeed in defining my own position in the life-world. This also applies to the collective subject: a civilization will only reach a mature state of self-realization if it is in a position to relate itself to other civilizational systems, leaving behind any "idiosyncrasy" or narrow-mindedness towards "the other." To say it in the words of modern hermeneutics: the wider the subjective horizon of experience, the easier a critical self‑comprehension may be attained. Applying this to one's own civilization and related cultural sub-systems we arrive at this point: In the very multitude and variety of possible systems of civilization we find the unique chance of gaining a clearer and more critical consciousness of our own system.[16] A certain structural similarity of this interdependence to Hegelian dialectics should, however, not be construed as justifying a polemical attitude towards perceptions of the world that are different from our own.

The hermenutics of civilizational dialogue

In order to interpret the dialectical relationship of subject and object in its concrete civilizational context, we will now relate that concept to modern philosophical hermeneutics in more detail. If we apply Hans-Georg Gadamer's universal hermeneutical conception[17] to the realm of civilizational awareness, transcending the horizon of one's own civilizational tradition is the fundamental precondition for a better understanding of that very civilization. Selbstverständnis (understanding of my self) is being based on Fremdverständnis (understanding of the other). If one's own civilization (with its specific  cultural traditions) is taken as an isolated phenomenon, it has, in strictly philosophical terms, less significance than if this civilization is being related to and, therefore, defined by distinct civilizations. In this fact lies what I call the cosmopolitan dimension of civilization per se. Only such an approach will enable us to avoid getting entangled in a false "hermeneutic circle," namely the circulus vitiosus of self-affirmation of a given civilization that has resorted to define itself through exclusive reference to its own Wirkungsgeschichte, i.e. the very tradition on which it is based.

Mature and responsible self‑comprehension is only possible when we are able and willing to go beyond the sphere of influence of our own civilization's history, thus transcending the paradigm of an "insular" interpretation and awareness of our own perception of the world. The encounter with traditions that are not just an offspring of our own civilization, but have developed in another framework of Wirkungsgeschichte,[18] is the conditio sine qua non not only of critical self-awareness, i.e. of a deeper philosophical understanding of the essence of our civilization, but of what today is called the "dialogue among civilizations." A kind of "skeptical" attitude towards one's implicit understanding of the world – i.e. an essentially philosophical approach towards one's civilization – is also indispensable for the development of tolerance towards other civilizations.

The hermeneutics of civilizational self-comprehension leaves no room for aggressive or hostile attitudes towards that which is not the "self" (in the individual as well as the collective sense), but realizes the human being's potential for critical consciousness in a comprehensive manner; it goes beyond the abstract concept of philosophical "reflection" by encompassing each individual's civilizational background against which it is alone able to shape its identity as "being-in-the-world" (In-der-Welt-Sein in the Heideggerian sense).[19]

A philosophical, as distinct from a merely sociological, foundation of inter-civilizational dialogue, in the sense of a hermeneutics of inter-civilizational understanding, has also remained a desideratum under the circumstances of the modern world (often characterized with the terms "globalization" or "globality").[20] The hermeneutics envisaged here along the lines established by Gadamer's Wahrheit und Methode (Truth and Method) is one that does away with the subjectivist and, for that matter, individualistic approach that has flourished for centuries in a kind of symbiosis with colonialism and more recently the "new-worldism" of the West.

As stated above in regard to the structure of human consciousness, the "other" serves as the "corrective" of one’s own understanding of the world ("life-world" as defined in Husserlian and Heideggerian phenomenology) and system of values. In the context of this comprehensive dialectic of cultural awareness, the "other" civilization is the essential precondition of the very awareness of my own civilization. This hermeneutic necessity correlates to the attitude of respect for the other on an individual as well as collective basis and tolerance towards one another’s civilization. Such an attitude is an indispensable moral requirement for the realization of any given civilization. The ethical value of tolerance constitutes a precondition for the critical awareness of my self as a social being and of my civilizational background in the sense of Gadamer's Gesamthorizont ("universal horizon of understanding"). Thus, this value is common to all civilizations.

However, in line with what was said earlier referring to Hegelian dialectics, the fact that I can define myself only vis-à-vis the other (as distinct from that which is not myself) must not encourage any over-assertive or hostile attitudes towards that which is “alien” to myself; on the contrary, it requires respect for the other, his distinct perception of reality, and cultural value system.

Civilizational dialogue, therefore, is based on a non-subjectivist philosophy of the realization of one’s own self through the encounter with different traditions, cultural expressions, value systems, and life-styles. Contrary to what some may assume, this is not a contradictio in adjecto. Even if the subject can never transcend itself completely (i.e. view itself from an absolute, or outside perspective), as is evidenced in the Kantian and Husserlian notion of the "pure transcendental subject,"[21] the self-realization of the concrete subject is achieved in what we call a "non-subjectivist" way, in the sense of genuinely relating to other subjects.[22] Those are perceived as offering the individual a chance of enriching his own social and cultural awareness, not just as a “tool” to help me define myself or help a given civilization to understand itself more comprehensively and develop its characteristics more fully.

In our understanding, the approach outlined here goes beyond the conceptual framework of traditional European hermeneutics as established by Wilhelm Dilthey[23] and further advanced by Hans-Georg Gadamer in the context of Heidegger's existential phenomenology. However, Gadamer’s philosophical hermeneutics, an approach that combines Heidegger's method of "existential analysis" (Existenzialanalyse) with Dilthey's classical hermeneutics, may serve as a methodological basis for a theory of cultural self-comprehension as referred to in this essay. His concept of Verständnishorizont (horizon of understanding) includes the specific socio-cultural environments into which the concrete human being is constantly integrated in the course of his life. According to this conception, a person’s understanding of the world (in the meaning of the "life-world," combining natural and social reality) is the result of a complex interaction of concrete horizons of understanding that constantly overlap. To describe this structure of self-comprehension, which is at the roots of cross-cultural understanding, Gadamer coined the term Horizontverschmelzung ("fusion of horizons").[24] A similar conception has been developed by Ali A. Mazrui in the context of applied social science. He states: “How people view the world is greatly conditioned by one or more cultural paradigms to which they have been exposed."[25] Culture, in Mazrui’s conception, provides “lenses of perception and cognition”[26] in the concrete social and historical context.

 According to Gadamer, the universal horizon of "my" understanding of the world (Gesamthorizont) is constantly being modified by the encounter with other human realities in my own individual "history," which in turn is part of a larger history of interacting civilizations. My understanding of reality and of myself as part of it is nothing static; understanding (Verstehen) of the self and the world (Lebenswelt) is a dynamic process shaped by those cultural perceptions which have entered over a period of individual or civilizational history my individual horizon and the collective horizon of the cultural community (civilization) I belong to. The "cultural ego" is not an insular entity that exists in a world defined according to one tradition only. Such exclusiveness would be the end of any critical understanding of one’s own Lebenswelt and civilizational environment. It would make tolerance towards other cultures not only illusory, but simply impossible.[27]

Beyond Eurocentrism? – Civilizational dialogue and peaceful co-existence among nations

Since the colonial era, the Western world has been used to exporting its civilization through its imperial and colonial policies. All other civilizations were measured by Western standards based on the anthropocentric and individualistic world view of the Graeco-Roman and Christian traditions. These have been centered around the preeminent role of the individual versus the collective subject and, derived from the former, around the meaning and value of "democracy"  (in the sense defined in the context of that civilization, namely as a specific form of representative decision-making). This is particularly true for the present period of the so-called "New World Order" through which certain Western cultural élites, in cooperation with the political establishment of their countries, have tried to monopolize the global discourse on democracy and human rights.[28]

In this context, the paradigm of the encounter with other civilizations has been that of Eurocentrism, which may be seen as the cultural-political expression of a form of collective "egotism." The "philosophy of the ego" (in the sense of a subjectivist, not necessarily idealistic,  conception) has characterized the West's overall approach to inter-civilizational encounters. In the Western tradition, interaction with other civilizations was basically driven by the desire for sharpening one’s own intellectual and social skills with a view of broadening the reach and increasing the strength of one’s own civilization; raising one’s cultural self-awareness was related to the aim of dominating other civilizations or claiming "global responsibility" for one's own civilization.[29]

Since the colonial era, the "dialectics of self-comprehension" (according to the tradition of European idealism as exemplified in Hegel’s universal dialectic of consciousness)[30] has been interpreted in the sense of an enrichment of one's own cultural experience and therefore improvement of the overall quality of life through the encounter with other civilizations. The supremacy of the interpreter's standpoint – i.e. of the European terms of reference – was never challenged in this Eurocentric perception of the life-world.[31] This "subjectivist" approach towards inter-civilizational encounters suited the interests of the dominant culture of the time. It was reflected in European Orientalism for example, which combined both Western naiveté (in the sense of ignorance of other cultures) and cultural arrogance.[32]

It is in distinction from this approach that we have tried to outline the hermeneutics of civilizational dialogue. Following from the above analysis of the dialectical structure of consciousness (reflection), the appropriate paradigm for the full development (or self-realization) of a civilization is that of dialogue, not of conflict ("clash"). The latter simply leads to intellectual isolation and deprives the respective civilization of its full potential of development; it keeps it on a level of philosophical naiveté. Furthermore, as aptly stated by A. J. Bacevich, "the imagery of clashing civilizations does possess real and potentially explosive emotional resonance"[33] – something which has been drastically demonstrated in the global political arena, particularly as regards the armed international conflicts of recent years.

One must leave the vicious circle of self-affirmation that has characterized the Eurocentric approach towards cultural encounters for so long. It has not only greatly discredited the Western tradition of Enlightenment, but has fuelled major wars and is now  threatening a kind of permanent conflict on a global scale. The civilizational dialogue envisaged here is more than peaceful co-existence of distinct social entities; it also means mutual enrichment through interdependence (in the sense of the above-described dialectic of self-comprehension).

A universal dialogue of civilizations – one that is not restricted by political or exclusively shaped by economic considerations – is of crucial importance for the future of mankind. Such a dialogue is a basic precondition of peace and stability on both the national and transnational levels.[34] For the philosopher, the real "enlightenment" is not based on a particular (19^th century) tradition of subjectivism, rationalism and voluntarism (as was often used to justify the ideology of political, economic and cultural colonization during the last two centuries),[35] but on an attitude of tolerance and openness towards other civilizations that is in itself timeless, i.e. not related to a particular historical period. The tópos of the "clash of civilizations," which has been used with increasing frequency since the end of the East-West conflict, must not become a self-fulfilling prophecy. Enemy stereotypes such as those created – or reinforced – in the aftermath of the events of September 11, 2001, are the direct result of a rejection of cultural hermeneutics and a form of negation of civilizational self-comprehension.
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Notes